Foreshadowing in a Man for All Seasons

In the play A Man for All Seasons, foreshadowing is used to hint at the death of Thomas More. Foreshadowing is a warning or indication of a future event. The foreshadowing shows through quotes from various characters throughout the play and even from Thomas More. King Henry wishes to divorce his current wife Catherine to be with another woman, but divorce is against the Catholic Church. In this case, King Henry needs all the support he can get to override the law of the church. He even goes as far as to start his own church and be the head of it.Thomas More cannot support King Henry’s divorce though because Thomas is devoted to the Catholic Church and its laws. He is a man who stands by his beliefs. This causes trouble with King Henry and all the men who support him. In the end, Thomas’s friends betray him and he dies. Many quotes from Thomas’s steward, Thomas More, and King Henry foreshadow Thomas More’s death in A Man for All Seasons. Thomas More’ s oath to God is how he identifies himself and it is very important to him.While Thomas is a very honest and pure man, his steward makes a comment saying, â€Å" My master Thomas More would give anything to anyone. Some say that’s good and some say that’s bad, but I say he can’t help it – and that’s bad. Because some day someone’s going to ask him for something that he wants to keep; and he’ll be out of practice † (Bolt 1. 17). The steward says this right after Rich takes the silver cup Thomas gives to him. The silver cup is a bribe a woman gives to Thomas, but Thomas does not accept bribes. The steward shows how kind Thomas is by not accepting the bribe and giving the bribe away.This quote foreshadows Thomas’s death, because the steward is predicting how King Henry will ask Thomas to support his divorce. The steward notes how Thomas would do just about anything for anyone, but Thomas will not be able to support the divo rce because Thomas cannot give away his oath to God. This causes King Henry to build up resentment towards Thomas which leads to Thomas’s death. Thomas believes his decision to not support the divorce will not cause any real trouble with him and King Henry, but Thomas is very wrong.Although Thomas does not yet know he will die, he foreshadows his own death by saying, â€Å"Set your mind at rest- this is not the stuff of which martyrs are made† (Bolt 1. 60). This quote is very significant because it shows Thomas’s ignorance and how much he underestimates the cruelty of his fellow friends and men in general. Thomas’s wife, who possesses much common sense, is very concerned, and she realizes before Thomas that King Henry will not simply let Thomas get away with his decision. Thomas is happy with his decision though, because he has stayed true to himself and to God.Thomas knows the only person he will judge is himself if he goes against his beliefs. Although King Henry is not pleased, Thomas believes he will not be bothered by the issue of the divorce again, but it does not go away as he hoped it would. Once Thomas realizes he has caused real trouble by his decision, he believes his silence will prove his innocence. This shows that Thomas stays ignorant throughout the play until he realizes how far King Henry is willing to go to prove his authority when Thomas is placed in prison under false charges.Even though Thomas thinks his decision will not cause any chaotic problems, King Henry hints that it will, even before Thomas comes to this conclusion. Henry tries to be polite at first and discuss the issue of the divorce with Thomas in person. When King Henry realizes Thomas is going to stand by his decision, King Henry says, â€Å" No opposition, I say! No opposition! Your conscience is your own affair; but you are my Chancellor! There, you have my word – I’ll leave you out of it. But I don’t take it kindly, Thomas à ¢â‚¬  (Bolt 1. 56).Although King Henry tells Thomas that he will leave him out of the divorce issue, King Henry foreshadows Thomas’s death by also saying he does not take Thomas’s decision lightly. Thomas does not catch this though, so he feels that he and the King have come to a truce. Even though King Henry understands Thomas’s devotion to the Catholic Church, he will not let Thomas go without a fight. Once King Henry gets his divorce and starts his own church, England severs its connection with Rome. This causes Thomas to resign as Lord Chancellor. Thomas’s action only adds fuel to King Henry’s fire.Thomas believes by staying silent on where he stands with his beliefs, he will not be punished for anything. In the end, King Henry decapitates Thomas for not choosing his side. Thomas’s death is foreseen many times throughout the play. The steward predicts that because of Thomas’s kind nature, he will one day be asked for something he will not want to give up. This prediction is proven true as King Henry asks Thomas to support a divorce that goes against Thomas’s beliefs. Thomas foreshadows his own death by underestimating the impact his decision will have on his community.Thomas believes that his decision to not support the divorce will irritate King Henry and his followers, but ultimately they will get over his choice. King Henry proves Thomas wrong as he throws Thomas in prison for made-up charges and later on decapitates him. Lastly, King Henry hints at his plans for Thomas’s death when he mentions how he does not take Thomas’s decision kindly. Readers see just how unkindly King Henry takes Thomas’s choice when he orders someone to kill Thomas. Foreshadowing is a key tool used in A Man for All Seasons in order to help readers predict Thomas More’s unfair death.

Undefeated

Undefeated Being positive and a true believer in good things will always give you the best outcome in life. Johnny was always out in the court playing what he loved. Second on his team, he was the most recognized basketball player in the entire high school. Johnnys passion towards basketball began when he was Just 8 years old. Always dribbling the ball around and playing with his friends, and never lost a game. During the school year, Johnny was determined to be his best in school but also to compete in the state finals.So to do that, he would come to the gym court every morning to practice. He hardly every missed a practice. Every day he would try his best to be healthy so his bones could be strong on the court. Johnny lifelong goal is to be a professional basketball star one day. The final game was Just a day away. This was to determine who was going to compete in the district finals. Johnny was as nervous as can be but he couldn't stop from going out there. As soon as the game sta rted, Johnnys team was in the lead. They were trying really hard to play their best.When a foul was called, Johnny was up for a free throw. While he threw the ball, a massive pain in his knee prevented him from continuing. He was in major pain and the ambulance was called to take him to the ER. Later that day, Johnnys teammates and family were as worried as can be. When the x-rays came in, it was noticed that Johnnys ACL was ruptured very severely. Followed by the recovery time and the surgery, it really impacted Johnnys mood. Although Johnny was aware that he had to stay positive throughout all of this.Thinking about the surgery â€Å"Finds, and shall find, me unafraid† kept him going. After the successful surgery, Johnny had only 2 months remaining until he could go back out on the court and play again. As tough as the procedure was, Johnny kept his head up and got through it. Johnny knows, because of his positive attitude and dedication to get better, he will be playing ag ain Just like he used to. All the hard work pays off at the end somehow. One thing to know he said â€Å"I am the master of my fate; I am the captain of my soul. † By mt6nesscaaa

Professionalism. As A NonCommissioned Officer, Leader, what it means Essay

Professionalism. As A NonCommissioned Officer, Leader, what it means to be professional, and why we should always be professional as Leaders of Soldiers. What Professionalism mean to me as a Leaders - Essay Example NCOs have the skills to carry out special trainings to correct emerging weaknesses. NCOs train soldiers, so that they are prepared to conduct their responsibilities and duties and can also lead their people. Indeed, Noncommissioned officers make noncommissioned officers. NCOs know how to identify future leaders and help train the latter to be effective leaders too. Furthermore, NCOs are supposed to be the yardsticks for their men’s own performances. They are leaders by model; they act with the direct intent of influencing the behavior and attitudes of their men. Professionalism is also about taking care of the welfare of our soldiers. NCOs ensure the Soldier is taken care of and is mentally and physically gifted to defend this country. NCOs help soldiers deal with both professional and personal problems, so that these problems will not lead to one another or reinforce each other. NCOs educate soldiers about existing benefits and services for themselves and their families, because these can assist them in focusing on their missions. Professional noncommissioned officers understand that their jobs are not limited to that defined by the Military Occupational Specialty. They understand that as members of the volunteer force, they are ready to take initiative and apply themselves in situations that are not clearly defined by their original duties and responsibilities. They know that they are on duty all the time. The clock does not impact professional soldiers; they are on call all the time. Thus, professional NCOs know by heart that there are no permanent schedules and only the call of duty

Central Banks and Monetary Policy Research Paper

Central Banks and Monetary Policy - Research Paper Example There are four main objectives of the central bank such as stable inflation, high and stable real growth, stable interest rates and stable exchange rates (Almoayed Group, 2007).   It will also address how the central bank monitors the money supply and the numerous tools of the monetary control will also be discussed in this study. The most significant part of this research paper is to study the association between price stability as well as other goals of the central bank. The behavior of the monetary aggregates, inflation as well as output in the context of UAE will also be discussed in a detailed way in this study. Last but not the least, the research study will endeavor to review the performance of the UAE central bank and discussion regarding interest rate as well as exchange rate stability in the UAE will be explained in brief. 1. Discuss briefly the five objectives of central banks. In their pursuit of maintaining price stability, central banks are said to manage the money su pply process. The central bank in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) was set up in the year 1980 and is considered to be the chief regulatory as well as the supervisory body with regard to the overall banking industry. The central banks of the UAE are believed to exert increasingly stringent vigilance on the financial institutions. Apart from this, the main objectives of the central banks operating in the UAE region are principally concentrated on issuing currencies, suggesting the government regarding the monetary as well as the financial issues, acting as the last resort lender for the other member banks and likewise, it is held to be responsible for managing the supply of money in the market and ascertain the way an economy operates. The initial objective of the central banks have been identified as being the responsible authority is to set up and preserve financial stability within the economy or rather stable real growth. It is since central banks are known to possess quite inclusi ve information regarding the risks in terms of financial stability with the assistance of its research as well as surveillance activities. The second objective of the central banks has been stated as the exercise of its essential roles for promoting and monitoring the reliability of the various financial institutions, particularly the banks since they are known to enjoy regulatory as well as supervisory control over those institutions. The third main objective of the central banks is the application of their respective tools to make certain of the prevalence of price stability such as the functions related to the open market and the interest rates. The tools are regarded as the effectual instruments for the purpose of manipulating financial stability through the intermediary procedures along with manipulating the aspect of demand with regard to the economy (Almoayed Group, 2007). The fourth objective of the central banks is to discharge its role as the ‘lender of the last reso rt’.

Office Development Activity in New York City Essay

Office Development Activity in New York City - Essay Example The building costs themselves have slowed down after the much talked about real estate bubble (Tom Acitelli, Sep 2006). However, the cost of the properties has gone for a spin and has risen to levels well beyond one hundred and forty percent of the GDP. In this paper, we will analyze the growth of the real estate business specifically the commercial properties and the way they have been rising (and falling, if any) before we go on to take a look at the current days. Subsequently an analysis of the current scene would let us know the future trends. There will also be a short analysis of the status of the rental of offices and the fluctuations in the rental pricings specifically in the New York region. Finally, a short comparison between the rental and the ownership market of the real estate will be taken up to check which would be the best option for an office to go in the current scenario. All these will be presented in here for analysis and study. In order to trace the rise and fall of a market, it is always useful to monitor the change that is happening in the market for the last ten years at least. ... Figure 1: The stock market bubble (dot com) and the Real Estate Assets from left to right. The last ten years have seen the change in the price of real estate stock steadily increasing and gathering speed after the dot com crash. This was an investment option that people have taken to after the crash not knowing where to put their money in. More over it is also seen that the real estate, unlike dot com where most of the investors were speculators, here most of the people are investors for life time. Many things went in line with the investment. Interest rates were attractive and it worked out cheaper to buy a house rather than to lease it out. Economic Status The economic status of the country and of its people also plays a vital role in the real estate rental and cost. Normal indexes that are compared or monitored for this purpose are mortgage rates, Consumer Price Index, job creation, productivity, federal deficit and consumer confidence apart from payroll and other social considerations. In addition GDP is also an indicator of the change in economic status and the price of the real estate or the rental of the real estate. (Miller Samuel, 2006) Figure 2: GDP and Manhattan Median Sales Price The green on the graph is the US Gross Domestic Product while the Red is the Manhattan Median Real Estate prices year on year growth percentage marked on a quarterly basis. This clearly shows that the price variation in the market has been directly linked to the GDP variations in the last 10 years. Variation in the GDP has accounted for a similar change in the Manhattan prices. There might have been shorter and smaller variations at times, but by and large, it has been

Inhalants(toluene) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Inhalants(toluene) - Research Paper Example Toluene can be difficult to identify especially without any chemical tests since it smells like most other hydrocarbons and most people might pass it for any ordinary hydrocarbon. Like other hydrocarbons, toluene is soluble in organic solvents and does not dissolve in any polar solvent such as water. Therefore, to test its presence using chromatography, t has to be dissolved in an inorganic solvent. This way, it can be able to be separated by chromatography. This allows it to be tested from other substances including blood to check if someone has inhaled it. This is a physical separation technique for separating volatile mixtures. It is practiced in areas such as pharmaceuticals, environmental conservation and cosmetics. Due to their volatility, human breath, secretions, and other body fluids can be analyzed using this technique. It can also analyze air samples for various compounds. This is one of the analytical methods that are used to test toluene. This technique came up in early 60s. Among the various forms of GC, gas-liquid chromatography is the most popular method. Combined with techniques such as mass spectrometry, it becomes invaluable to separation and identification of molecules. This technique has been applied in the separation of toluene from other compounds for a very long time. Various kinds of detectors can be used to separate toluene and the other components in the substance. They include flame ionization detector, thermal conductivity detector and electron capture detector. Factors influencing the separation process include the stationary phase’s polarity. The polar compounds have strong interactions during this phase. This causes polar compounds to have a longer retention times than their non-polar counterparts. The temperature also affects the process by reducing the retention time. Chromatographic detectors react differently to each compound. To

The campaign of Martin Luther King Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The campaign of Martin Luther King - Essay Example Among the issues mentioned above, prompting the campaign, there were others like the acceptance of all citizens to public schools regardless of their skin color. To lead the campaign, Dr. Luther King had been invited by the leader for local civil rights in the Birmingham area. A boycott had preceded every action, so as to bring the attention of the business community on movements’ goals. Dr. King was ready to lead this movement, majorly for his most heartfelt agony. To him, he was a leader who was more than ready to walk the talk and the sufferings of the already full jails’ victims drove him forward even the more.  Dr. Martin Luther King was through with debate and this campaign presented a chance to bring about change that was deeply sought. To this, he had turned up to honor the invitation in hill full outfit for the march. The leader was prepared to go to prison for the struggle for civil rights. He eventually ended up in jail for this movement and it was from the re that he did a popular piece of work â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail.† The letter was addressed to clergymen from Birmingham of white descent who formed a group of cynics labeling him an agitator from outside.  To offer a direct answer to the first study question, then, it can be taken that from King’s words that the Birmingham undertakings were headed for success and would eventually be a story of achieved freedom, not directly but as a step towards it. This nonviolent approach to the African American’s oppression was a sure way of achieving a win-win situation.... To offer a direct answer to the first study question, then, it can be taken that from King’s words that the Birmingham undertakings were headed for success and would eventually be a story of achieved freedom, not directly but as a step towards it. This nonviolent approach to the African American’s oppression was a sure way of achieving a win-win situation both for the oppressor as well as the ones oppressed. It would give an end of an ultimate healing for both sides. The most essential of this nonviolent move of seeking freedom for the African Americans was in the inclusion of freedom songs as well. The slaves were better placed to use this way of realizing their freedom and this was the case in the movements in this context. According to the sentiments by Dr. King in this book, the Birmingham case was not one of the easiest. It was really difficult, but it offered a scenario of a light at the end of the tunnel. Therefore, considering the words by King as written in thi s book they were optimistic and they aided in successful breaking of the chains binding black Americans in slavery. This is as per the letter dated January 1964 and which was done by Martin Luther King Jr. Cotton, Dorothy puts it in his book that a similar scenario of success can be achieved in the current day’s predicaments of social justice. A struggle of the same magnitude would frog-jump the nation’s situation into an ideal one. The movement happened in the setting in of year 1963 and it focused on Negro freedom among other things, which was achieved later. Mistreatment involving blacks working in the mines, blistering foundries and upon the docks was waved goodbye. Thus, this Birmingham’s case of struggle presents a

Fauquier Gas Company Logistics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fauquier Gas Company Logistics - Assignment Example A change from agricultural life to commercial and residential life within a society increases the demand for gas thus the business needs to react urgently to serve the customers’ needs. It is a fact that different departments within Fauquier gas company operate independently as opposed to one unit. It thus makes communication within the organization difficult. Another fact within the organization is that the organization’s heads of departments respond slowly to the news. That aspect is evidenced by the fact that even after Mr. Murphy heard about the new pipe construction project and made efforts to contact all the heads of the department’s partaking the project in January. By April 14 he is yet to receive a purchase request and pipe specification (Hood, 2013).The main problem within the organization is communication. Whereas communication is enhanced after inquiries about certain events are made, timely information is essential for an organization’s develo pment. As logistics entails efficient flow of information within an organization’s department, it is thus important if communication within the organization is effective and timely (Drucker and Marciariello, 2009). In order to cater for the rising customer demand, Fauquier Gas Company requires undertaking a mega investment decision. To ensure sufficient gas supply to customers, three and a half miles of new gas needs installation by September (Hood, 2013). Though the capital investment seems to be taking progress, all the departments involved in achieving that objective are not equally engaged. It seems awkward to realize that Mr. Murphy, being the head of supply management is unaware of the undergoing project within the organization. Investing in a three, and a half mile gas line requires a lot of resources and to make such decisions regarding authorization of material purchases, sufficient  information is necessary.  

Modeling and Simulation Environments (Infusing Technology in the Assignment

Modeling and Simulation Environments (Infusing Technology in the Classroom) - Assignment Example It has also been argued that the best way for students to learn from an environment that stresses on an individual’s use of cognitive and analytical skills while employing the use of technology, is through modeling (Hung & Khine, 2006). A modeling activity is, generally, referred to a constructive use of objects and models in order to learn in a way of assessing individual selves (Lajoie, 2000). An example of a modeling activity that involves the use of technology is Spreadsheets (Jonassen, Carr & Yueh, 1998). These are basically, computerized record keeping systems which were launched with the purpose of substituting manually-held accounting systems. Perhaps, an accounting student might know its best usage. Apparently, it is a grid having rows and columns represented by numbers and letters respectively. Each row and column has a number of empty cells which is open to be used by the user to put in his/her desired values. It works in a way that values and formulas are fed to th e spreadsheet, which itself manipulates the values into other cells according to desired action made by the user. These spreadsheets are user-friendly in a way that a formula applied once would automatically be applied by the computer to all the values inserted by the user and the values would thus, be recalculated. The modeling activities have been termed to be under the umbrella of Engagement Theory, which advocates that students willingly engage themselves in an environment where they learn things which might not be so well taught by a human instructor as the processes of cognition, problem solving, evaluation and self-improvement are done individually (Kearsley & Shneiderman, 1999). But here, problem solving is the main focus. The same applies to simulation activities as well as regards to cognition, analysis and evaluation. There are a number of examples related to technology-based simulation type of activities. One such example is that of the Microworlds in which the students use

The Media Exposure of Children and Youths Essay

The Media Exposure of Children and Youths - Essay Example By spending this time watching the TV, video, and films, I got loads of information that connected with my life experiences, and more importantly, the experiences influenced my life in different ways. Through this paper, I will review two films: Adams Rib (1949) and Real Women Have Curves (2002), to show how the two have influenced and shaped my life. In particular, these two movies have highlighted the themes of gender, ethnicity and the role of parents, and have been instrumental in the development of my personal life. Â  As a Muslim, I had grown to the age of fifteen years, knowing and believing that men were superior to women in all ways, including the way they could succeed in education and career. However, during one evening, I watched a movie that would change my view of women and their potential within the society. Previously, I had watched my mother taking her roles as a housewife very confidently and proudly, until it was almost unusual for me to imagine the place of a woman in reputable roles like national administration, law or medicine (Rideout, Roberts and Foehr 6). The place that I had associated with women is commonly the reality among Muslims, as their culture and way of life, limit the entry of women into positions of leadership (Mernissi 34). The common socialized outlook, among Muslims especially those living in Muslim societies, is that men are stronger than women intellectually, physically and socially, therefore allow men to dominate women (Mernissi 34). Â  However, this outlook towards the roles and the positions of the two genders changed drastically, and the change has continued to change, since that time. The film showcases the lives of a married couple, Adam and Amanda Bonner (wife).

The Scientific Method Essay Example for Free

The Scientific Method Essay This experiment was performed by using a systematic approach to identify six unknown substances. In the first half of the experiment six unknown substances were observed than measured by determining volume, mass and density. The second half of the experiment the unknown were placed in a test tube and tested for solubility. It was determined that the six tubes contained coffee, potting soil, brown sugar, baby powder, baking soda, and powdered sugar. By the use of the scientific method each unknown subject could be identified. Hypothesis: The contents of unknown samplers are as follows: #1 coffee, #2 potting soil, #3 brown sugar, #4 baby powder, #5 baking soda, #6 powdered sugar. Material List: Digital Scale 50 ml Cylinder Safety Goggles Spatula 6 Test Tubes Magnifier Rubber Stopper Test Tube Rack Marking Pencil Test Tube Cleaning Brush Procedure: The unknown substances were removed from a bag. Next, volume, density, and mass were calculated using small paper boats, a digital scale, and a formula which called to divide the mass by the volume. Then, the texture, shape and appearance of each substance was observed and recorded. Lastly, each substance was tested for solubility in distilled water. Data Table: Calculating Density of Unknown Samples Mass of Unknown Sample (g)Volume (cm)Density (g/cm) Unknown Sampler# 1 = 0.4 1.3 .31 Unknown Sampler#2= 0.5 1.5 .3 Unknown Sampler#3=0.5 1.5 .3 Unknown Sampler#4=0.8 1.3 .61 Unknown Sampler#5=0.6 1.5 .4 Unknown Sampler#5=0.6 1.3 .46 Discussion Based off of observations of color, shape, and texture and smell hypothesis is accurate and correct for unknown samples 1-6. In conclusion based off of color, smell, and texture the hypothesis for unknown substances 1-4 are correct, but based off of these same observations substances 5 and 6 are questionable. Questions: 1. Which of the six measures in the experiment yielded quantitative data? What specifically about the measures was quantitative? Quantitative data is data that can be measured numerically, out of the six measures in the experiment volume, mass, and density would be considered quantitative since these measures can be measured numerically unlike any other from the experiment. 2. Which unknowns are you confident that you correctly identified? What specific test was crucial in confidence? I am confident that I have correctly identified unknown substances 1-4 based off of color,  texture, smell and solubility these measures were crucial in my confidence of my hypothesis. 3. One of the most important and unique steps in the scientific method is the ability to create a new hypothesis if your results do not support your original ideas. What areas in your life, other than in science class, do you think this type of step would be helpful? I am a mother and frequently find myself in the kitchen cooking and trying out new recipes that taste good but are still nutritious (children can be very picky) I would say in terms of a new recipe that I am trying- If my idea is that my children would like to try something new I would test it out by serving it to them, and in the case that my children do not like it I would try again maybe add some ingredients or take something out in hopes that the end result would be for my kids to enjoy the meal while getting all of the nutrition that kids need. 4. What additional test could you perform to assist in the identification of these unknown samples? Melting, boiling, or even chemical test may be performed. 5. Which of the seven tests performed was the most challenging? The most challenging test for me was the shape test, I found this most difficult because although I had the magnifier I still had trouble distinguishing what it was that I actually saw as I was examining each substance, however once I examined each substance individually I compared what I saw and could most definitely see the difference between large and small particles.

San Vitale Church: Construction and Design

San Vitale Church: Construction and Design Byzantine Empire started when the Roman Emperor Constantine moved the capital of Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium. Byzantine Architectures was very similar to Roman architecture, but got certain influences from Near East and used Greek cross plan in church architecture. When the Church of San Vitale was built, Ravenna was under the control of Byzantine Empire, which is why San Vitale would be similar to the Byzantine architectures instead of having the same plan as other churches in Ravenna. The construction of Church of San Vitale, dedicated by Bishop Maximian in 547, was begun long before Maximians arrival at Ravenna, even before the city was recaptured from the Goths in 540. Construction of this church began under Bishop Ecclesius after King Theodorics death in 526. The person who funded this great project was a certain Julianus called Argentarius ie a banker, not a bishop (Lowden, 127). He provided more than 26000 gold coins to proceed with the work. San Vitale was built in honor of Saint Vitalis, who was martyred at Ravenna in the second century (Kleiner, 316). The raison dà ªtre of the Church of San Vitale was to hold the relics of Saint Vitalis. Vitalis was not as famous or important as other famous saints, such as St Lawrence, thus originally there was only one small cross-shaped martyrium chapel built for him at Ravenna. But now a new church was constructed for him. There is no reason found to explain why his relics grew to the importance of requiring a magnif icent new church. But according to one legend, he was the father of Gervasius and Protasius, two important Milanese saints, and all three of them are martyred in this church. This might be the reason why a church was specially built for St Vitalis (Lowden, 127). Its design is different from the sixth-century churches in Ravenna and was considered to be unlike any churches in Italy. It is not a basilica, but a central-planned church similar to the Justinians churches in Constantinople. The Church of San Vitale is a central-domed octagon extended by semi-circular bays, surrounded by an ambulatory and gallery, all covered in vault. The main source of light comes from the clerestory and there are windows on the side walls, too. The regularity and angularity suggested by the exterior is different from the interior, which is dominated by curves. There are seven curving exedras on the sides of the central space which the double arcades will lead the eye up to vaulted semi-domes, arches, and thence to the central dome. The lower part of the church was originally reverted with colored marbles, which most of them were lost through out the ages, and now parts of them were restored. The presbytery (the part of a cathedral or church east of the choir, in which the main altar is situated) was also covered with marble and costly opus sectile in a geometric pattern. In the middle level, the presbytery was covered with mosaics. The mosaics that decorate San Vitales choir and apse like the building itself, must be regarded as among the most climactic achievements of Byzantine art (Kleiner, 316). But the original decorative scheme for the upper surface of the main body of the church remains unknown (Lowden, 127). The most famous parts of the Church of San Vitale are the mosaics. The imperial panels in the church of S. Vitale at Ravenna are perhaps the most famous of all Byzantine mosaics (Treadgold, 708). Two panels face each other, one on each side of the apes. The left one was covered with mosaic Emperor Justinian and his Attendants and the right one was cover with mosaic Empress Theodora and her Attendants. Both the emperor and empress can be identified by the imperial purple robs they wear and halos behind their heads. The attendants who accompany Justinian parallel Christs twelve apostles. Therefore, the mosaic serves both political and religious reasons of the emperor. In the mosaic, the positions of the figures are important. They express the ranking of all figures (Treadgold, 708). Justinian is at the center, wearing purple robe and with a halo in order to distinguish from other dignitaries. At his left is Bishop Maximianus, the man responsible for San Vitales completion. Although the emperor appears to be slightly behind Maximianus, the large golden paten he carries overlaps the bishops arm. This symbolized by place and gesture, the imperial and churchly powers are in balance (Kleiner, 317). In these mosaics, classical elements of art mostly disappeared. For example, no shadows are presented, faces of figures are more stylized, and there is little naturalism. There is no background indicated. In the mosaic Emperor Justinian and his Attendants, the artists wanted viewers to think the procession is taking place in San Vitale, thus the emperor would appear forever as a participant in this church, symbolizing that he will be the proprietor of this church and the ruler of the empire forever (Treadgold, 708). This one of the most important reasons why San Vitale was built: to glorify the Emperor Justinian and the whole empire under his rule. The opposite wall of the apse contains the mosaic that depicts Empress Theodora, who was considered to be one of the most remarkable women of the middle Ages (Kleiner, 317). Similar to her husband, she is accompanied by her retinue. She carries Chalice, the golden cup with the wine (symbol of Christs blood) while Justinian carries the paten containing the bread (symbol of Christs body). While most parts of the Theodora mosaic exhibit the same style as the Justinian mosaic, the women are shown within a background. It depicts the scene that Empress Theodora was waiting to follow emperors procession, which shows she was outside the sanctuary at that time. The fact that she is outside in the courtyard showed that her rank was not quite equal to her husband (Treadgold, 708). Even though Justinian and Theodoras mosaics are considered to be one of the most important and most famous mosaics inside the Church of San Vitale, Justinian and Theodora never actually came to Ravenna or participate in any events, which mean those two panels are not the historical record of San Vitale. (Lowden, 134). So those two panels are built in order to ensure Emperor Justinians rule over Ravenna and glorify the whole empire under the rule of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora. The Church of San Vitale is one of the most important architecture during Byzantine period. The plan of San Vitale is borrowed and used by constructions, such as the Palace Chapel of Charlemagne in Germany. All visitors would marvel at its intricate design and magnificent golden mosaics. But beauty is not everything San Vitale has; political and religious meanings also play a big role while Church of San Vitale is constructed. Work cited Kleiner, Fred. Gardners Art through the Ages: A Global History. Ohio: Wadsworth Publishing, 2009. Lowden, John. Early Christian Byzantine Art. London: Phaidon Press, 1997. Treadgold, Warren. Procopius and the Imperial Panels of San Vitale. The Art Bulletin. 79 (1997): 708-723 Lateral Line System in Fish: Structure and Function Lateral Line System in Fish: Structure and Function Introduction       The lateral line is a sensory system in fish and amphibians. It is made up of mechanoreceptors called neuromasts which are sensitive to water movement (Diaz et al. 2003). The lateral line system has an important role in the detection of stationary objects, navigation, prey detection, capture and in swimming in schools (Gelman et al. 2007). The receptor organ of the lateral line system is the neuromast. There are two types of neuromasts, canal neuromasts which are located in the intradermal canals, and the superficial neuromasts which are located in the intraepidermal canals. Canal neuromasts are able to detect water flow acceleration, while superficial or free neuromasts can detect velocity (Gelman et al. 2007). In some species like the American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), the lateral line system has evolved into an electrosensory system (Modrell et al. 2011). This was accomplished by the specialization of hair cell receptors. These hair cell receptors in the lateral line system resemble the sensory hairs of insects. This may suggest that both derive from a common ancestral mechanosensory organ (Dambly-Chaudiere et al. 2003). This review paper will focus on the lateral line systems anatomy, function and its components. It will also consider the origin of the lateral line system, modifications of the lateral line and explore research gaps in the literature. Origin of the Lateral Line System A study undertaken by Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. The author explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system detecting water movement. Through embryology and comparative anatomy, it has been established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system (Denison 1966). The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain (Denison 1966). Early vertebrate fossils revealed that the pore canal system which consists of canals that lie below the dermis, and pore canals which connect the canals that lie below the dermis to the surface. The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci which is a group of ostracoderms. It is present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians. As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates (Denison 1966). The author states that this relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line was first recognized in Osteotraci. In transverse sections, canals that are located below the dermis in the pore canal system are difficult to be distinguished from a lateral line canal (Figure 1). Both of these canals have a narrow opening and a basal part which is separated by a horizontal septum into an outer part that is filled with mucus, and an inner part which consists of sensory cells and nerves (Denison 1966). Figure 1. The figure shows a transverse section of an ostcostracan. This depicts the similar structure of the lateral line canal (IOC) and a canal of the pore canal system (P). BL represents the basal layer, C is the canal which connects the mesh canal with the vascular canal. ML represents the middle layer, RC the vascular canal, SL the superficial layer and X represents the septum that separates the lateral line canal (Denison 1966). As the structure between these two systems is similar the author determined that the lateral line was derived from pore a canal system, and then became a specialized part of it and later remained there (Denison 1966). Structure of the Lateral Line System Organization of the Lateral Line The lateral line, consists of a row of small pores which lead into the underlying lateral line canal. In the head, the lateral line canal is separated into three canals, one passes forward and above the eye, another forward and below the eye and the other downward and below the jaw (Figure 2) (Parker 1904). These three canals have numerous pores and together with the lateral line canal, make the lateral line system. Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line. Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells. Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 ÃŽÂ ¼m) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 ÃŽÂ ¼m). The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands. Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells. At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers (Jakubowski 1967). Figure 2. Diagram of the lateral line system. The lateral line canal is divided into 3 stems, one passes forward and above the eye, another forward and below the eye and the other downward and below the jaw. Black dots represent the location of the neuromasts on the skin surface. White dots on the brown line show the positions of the neuromasts in sub-epidermal lateral line canals (Yang et al. 2010). Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium. The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast (Figure 3). There are two types of neuromasts, superficial or free neuromasts and canal neuromasts. Superficial neuromasts are located at the surface of the body and are affected by the environment. Superficial neuromasts are categorized into primary or paedomorphic neuromasts and secondary or neomorphic neuromasts. Canal neuromasts are primary neuromasts. These are found inside epidermal or bony canals and are located on the head or body of the fish (Coombs et al. 1992). Figure 3. Lateral line of fish. (a) The figure shows the basic structure of neuromasts and all its components. (b) Hair cell, depicting the innervation of afferent and efferent fibers (Dambly-Chaudiere et al. 2003). Superficial and Canal Neuromasts Superficial neuromasts are small and can be found in lampreys, teleost fishes and in some bony fishes. Superficial neuromasts are located on the head and the body and in some fish in the caudal fin (Cernuda et al. 1996). They have a cylindrical cupula and a round base with a diameter that can seldom reach 100 ÃŽÂ ¼km. The number of hair cells is small, from several dozens to several hundred (Cernuda et al. 1996). In canal neuromasts, the sensory area is situated at the bottom of the canal below the skin. Canal neuromasts have a large range in size, shape and orientation within the canal. Some species have narrow canals and the neuromast can be found in a local constriction with the long axis running parallel to the canal axis. Some other fishes have neuromasts which are found in wide canals and have a different shape. Canal neuromasts allow the efficient detection of pressure differentials, which are created by the current movement across the canal pores (Cernuda et al. 1996). Lateral Line System Function The lateral line system has often been described as touch at a distance. This is due to the lateral line function being similar to the senses of touch and hearing (Coombs et al. 2006). The earliest hypothesis about the function of the lateral line was that it secretes mucus to cover the body. Several years later, it was determined that the lateral line is used to detect water current and stimuli from moving objects (Bleckmann et al. 1993). Fish can sense water movements ranging from large-scale currents to small disturbances caused by plankton. This is due to the superficial neuromasts which are able to respond to very weak water currents, with speeds from 0.03 mm/s and higher. Canal neuromasts can respond to current speeds from 0.3 to 20 mm/s (Bleckmann et al. 1993). The lateral line has functions in schooling, prey detection, spawning, rheotaxis (which is a form of taxis when fish face an ongoing current), courtship and station holding (Coombs et al. 2006). It is thought that the lateral line system can create hydrodynamic images of the surrounding area. This can be achieved by detecting moving and stationary objects in active and passive ways. Active hydrodynamic imaging is similar to the echolocation of objects that is observed in dolphins. Here, fish produce a flow field around their body, which helps them in detecting distortions in their flow field. This is observed in blind cavefishes, which rely on this mechanism to explore their surroundings. For example, they are able to differentiate between structures that differ by even 1 mm (Coombs et al. 2006). Passive hydrodynamic imaging can be carried out for moving and stationary bodies. This is achieved by detecting currents that are generated by other moving bodies such as other fish or the movement of stationary objects such as rocks in a stream (Coombs et al. 2006). Lateral Line Information Processing Lateral line information is processed in all regions of the brain (Figure 4). The information is provided by afferent nerve fibres and is sent to the brain via the lateral line nerves that enter the ipsilateral brainstem and terminate in the medial octavolateralis nucleus (MON). Main primary lateral line projections reach the ipsilateral cerebellar granular eminence while the second order of projections from the medial octavolateralis nucleus terminate in the lateral compartment of the torus semicircularis and in the deep layers of the optic tectum. The final pathway for information processing is the relay of information from the midbrain to different diencephalic nuclei (Bleckmann 2008). Figure 4. This figure depicts the pathway of information processing. MON represents the medial octavolateralis nucleus, CCe represents the Corpus cerebelli, Ll is the hypothalamic inferior lobe, Flo is the facial lobe, ON is the olfactory lobe, PGl represents the lateral preglomerular nucleus, PE is the pre eminential nucleus, TSvl is the Ventro lateral nucleus of torus semicircularis (Bleckmann 2008). Lateral Line Modifications The lateral line system of elasmobranchs is different to that of teleost fish. Elasmobranchs have superficial neuromasts and two morphological classes of sub-epidermal canals. Elasmobranch canals have skin pores that allow direct contact with the surrounding water. They may also have absent skin pores which prevent the contact of canal fluid with the external environment. In teleost fish, hydrodynamic pressure differences at the skin pores cause fluid motion. This results in pored canal neuromasts being able to cipher the acceleration of external water flow near the skin, and induce behaviours such as hydrodynamic imaging, detection of prey and schooling. In elasmobranch fishes, other than prey detection the function of the lateral line pores and their neurophysical response is not yet known (Maruska and Tricas 2004). Sharks and batoids have non-pored canals which are located on the ventral body surface, rostrum and around the mouth (Figure 5). The absence of skin pores demonstrates that localized weak hydrodynamic flow which causes pressure differences will not produce canal fluid motion directly, as it occurs in the pored canal systems (Maruska and Tricas 2004). Figure 5. Lateral line canal system on the dorsal (D) and ventral (V) surface of the Atlantic stingray, Dasyatis Sabina. Solid lines indicate neuromast-free tubules which terminate in pores. The other lines indicate canal sections which consist of innervated neuromasts (Maruska and Tricas 2004). A hypothesis was developed to explain the function of non-pored canals in elasmobranch fishes. The hypothesis explains that the non-pored canals of stingrays which are located on the ventral surface, function as tactile receptors that aids in the localization and capture of small benthic prey. The hypothesis explains that direct coupling of the skin and canal fluid should result in an increase in sensitivity to the velocity of skin movement, which would mean that primary afferents that innervate neuromasts would show characteristics consistent with detectors of velocity. The hypothesis also states that without direction to the external environment, non-pored canals will have lower sensitivity to water motion in comparison to tactile stimulation (Maruska and Tricas 2004). A study done by Karen P. Maruska and Timothy C. Tricas (2004) determined that pored hyomandibular canals on the stingrays dorsal surface are different in terms of primary afferent response from the non-pored hyomandibular canals on the ventral surface. They expressed that primary afferents from the dorsal pored canals respond as hydrodynamic acceleration detectors of water disturbances which are mainly caused by predators. Ventral non-pored canals are sensitive to small movements of the skin, and primary afferents encode the velocity of fluid induced in the canal by these stimuli. The results supported their main hypothesis and demonstrate the function of the lateral line in elasmobranchs in prey detection (Maruska and Tricas 2004). Research Gaps At present, we have a good understanding of how the brain stem and the midbrain respond to different types of stimuli for example, a change in water flow or movement of an object. However, we know nothing about information processing in the tectum opticum which forms the roof of the midbrain and functions as the primary visual center. In amphibians the tectum opticum, a lateral line map is created which helps in registering with a visual and an electrosensory map, which together represent the external area (Parker 1904). Furthermore, we have no information on how lateral line information is processed in cerebellum, which is a brain structure that is involved in motor control and also has a role in cognition. Additionally, little is known about the process of adaptation in the lateral line pathway and how the efferent pathway in the electrosensory lateral line functions in gaining control which is thought to apply in the mechanosensory line (Parker 1904). There is not a lot of information on the internal and chemical structure of the cupula, and how the cupula is attached to the base of the neuromast. The role of the lateral line in schooling is poorly understood. In elasmobranch fishes, other than prey detection the function of the lateral line pores and their neurophysical response has not been fully researched. Conclusion The lateral line system which is a sensory system in fish and amphibians has various functions in schooling, navigation, and prey detection. Through paleontology, comparative anatomy and embryology it was demonstrated that there is a phylogenetic connection between the pore canal system in the dermis of early vertebrates and the lateral line. Moreover, through the action of neuromasts and hydrodynamic imaging, the fish is able to detect its surrounding environment. Lastly, there are some research gaps regarding on how lateral line information is processed in certain parts of the brain. Literature Cited: Bleckmann, H. and Zelick, R. (1993) The Responses of Peripheral and Central Mechanosensory Lateral Line Units of Weakly Electric Fish to Moving-Objects. Journal of Comparative Physiology A-Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology, 172 (1), pp. 115-128. Bleckmann, H. (2008) Peripheral and central processing of lateral line information. Journal of Comparative Physiology A-Neuroethology Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology, 194 (2), pp. 145-158. Cernuda Cernuda, R. and Garcia Fernandez, J. (1996) Structural diversity of the ordinary and specialized lateral line organs. Microscopy Research and Technique, 34 (4), pp. 302-312 Coombs, S., Jansenn, J. and Montgomery, J. (1992) Functional and Evolutionary Implications of Peripheral Diversity in Lateral Line Systems. Coombs, S. and van Netten, S. (2006) The Hydrodynamics and Structural Mechanics of the Lateral Line System. Fish Biomechanics, 23, pp. 103-139. Dambly-Chaudiere, C., Sapede, D., Soubiran, F., Decorde, K., Gompel, N. and Ghysen, A. (2003) The lateral line of zebrafish: a model system for the analysis of morphogenesis and neural development in vertebrates. Biology of the Cell, 95 (9), pp. 579-587. Denison, R. (1966) Origin of Lateral-Line Sensory System. American Zoologist, 6 (3), pp. 369-371. Diaz, J., Prie-Granie, M., Kentouri, M., Varsamos, S. and Connes, R. (2003) Development of the lateral line system in the sea bass. Journal of Fish Biology, 62 (1), pp. 24-40. Gelman, S., Ayali, A., Tytell, E.D. and Cohen, A.H. (2007) Larval lampreys possess a functional lateral line system. Journal of Comparative Physiology A-Neuroethology Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology, 193 (2), pp. 271-277. JAKUBOWSKI, M. (1967) Cutaneous Sense Organs of Fishes .7. Structure of System of Lateral-Line Canal Organs in Percidae. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Zoologia, 10 (1), pp. 69-81. Maruska, K. and Tricas, T. (2004) Test of the mechanotactile hypothesis: neuromast morphology and response dynamics of mechanosensory lateral line primary afferents in the stingray. Journal of Experimental Biology, 207 (20), pp. 3463-3476. Modrell, M.S., Bemis, W.E., Northcutt, R.G., Davis, M.C. and Baker, C.V.H. (2011) Electrosensory ampullary organs are derived from lateral line placodes in bony fishes. Nature Communications, 2, pp. 496. Parker G.H (1904) Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries. 24th edition. Washington Government Printing Office, pp 180-204 Yang, Y., Nguyen, N., Chen, N., Lockwood, M., Tucker, C., Hu, H., Bleckmann, H., Liu, C. and Jones, D.L. (2010) Artificial lateral line with biomimetic neuromasts to emulate fish sensing. Bioinspiration Biomimetics, 5 (1), pp. 016001. Theories of Communication: Summary and Analysis Theories of Communication: Summary and Analysis VOTE DAVID TOMIBEBI COURSE TITLE: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS INTRODUCTION No matter what language we speak, when we hear a sentence we try to get the logical meaning and interpretation (inference). We also try to figure out the exact truth of what the other person or people are saying because it is also believed that there is more to conversation then just the word to word facts. There is a consistent way our conversation should work and we use our knowledge of those rules to go beyond what is actually said and figure out what they actually mean. Therefore, in analyzing this conversation we are going to use those principles such as the cooperative principle and this also is sub-divided or break down into four main maxims which are, the maxim of quality, the maxim of manner, the maxim of relevance and the maxim of quantity Paul Grice (1960). These principles act as guides to our conversations at all times. Most people use it without really knowing that they are using it. Therefore in analyzing this conversation, theories from experts like Paul Grice, Hymes and Wilson (see Bill Clark) are used to explain. In same vein this brief is a communication process via a sign post and it is governed by the maxim of truthfulness and the widespread of the use of pragmatics language to illustrate various processes that leads to relevance SITUATION The speaking Grid is a tool use in the act of interpreting the communication processes; it was developed by Hymes with the acronym S.P.E.A.K.I.N.G which stands for setting and scene, participant, end, act of sequence, key, instrumentalities, norm and genre. (Hymes, 1974 p55-62) In that, the speaking grid is used to analyze the sign post above. SETTING AND SCENE This sign post was spotted on the working site of a car company (mechanical shop) here in the UK Luton. It is believed that the site is marked private and only workers or customers of the said establishment are allowed to park their cars at the place with an order of sanction that follows for none customers Again different cultures have different demands and expectations from individual behaviors in that people coming from a culture were sign post are not used will surely not acknowledge the sign post. Therefore, it all boils down to the psychological state of mind of the individual. PARTICIPANT The participant here are the customers and none customers. It is so because the sign post explicitly direct the information to those two set of audience ENDS The sign post ends with the instruction which is believed to be a sanction for none customers(Toad) although the word is misspell(Towed) but the message is obviously clear to the none customers of the possible action that will be taken against him or her. ACT SEQUENCE The sign post start with the word â€Å"Private† which could meaning a lot of things to different people. But could be understood through the act of inference to meaning private for the purpose of been so for its customers only. KEY This usually refers to the tone of the conversation between peoples but in the post the major tone there is that of the sanction which state that all other will be toad (towed) INSTRUMENTALITY The post was written in two broad forms which could explain perfectly the intention of the communicator. The first language used was a causal language then followed by the tone of sanction for by passers. NORMS There are social and legal rule guiding people’s actions and behavior in the every society. In that the post explicitly indicate that it is for private and at such others will be towed (toad) that is, others not authorize to park there. GENRE This is an artistic work in which scene of everyday life form the subject matter. Therefore, it is most related to linguistic and pragmatic features. LINGUISTIC AND PRAGMATIC FEATURES Linguistically the words written on the sign post might look ambiguous and incorrect because the sign private customer parking only ignoring the misspell word of toad could mean a lot of things to different people because there are so many private life and could also mean private car park which could mean not for public use. Therefore, linguistically what the sign post might be meaning is that customer parking only which can be interpreted that customers are not allowed to do any other thing except parking and this could meaning parking themselves and not cars But it is our knowledge of the word that tells us the actual meaning and by doing so we infer into the contextual meaning by way of reasoning in other to deduce the actual meaning of private car parking Secondly, the word â€Å"ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD† which could mean that all other that are not customers could be towed or sometime else could happen to their car. Therefore, that leads to our pragmatic understanding of words as they appear to us. PRAGMATIC MEANING Pragmatically the sign clearly illustrates the under determinacy of the message by the linguistic meaning of the communicative act and people are able to infer meaning to the sign assuming that the word â€Å"ALL OTHERS† could be meaning cars and nothing something else The main idea of pragmatic theory is to analyze issues that affect the interpretation of utterances relating to the knowledge behind the linguistic meaning of the sentence. In that, this analysis shows that human communication is more than just coding and decoding of words and this could be seen from the illustration from of the word â€Å"ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD†. It is believed that from the reasoning we are able to infer meaning into the word and extracting the exact meaning the sentence is trying to portray or give. Therefore, in trying to encode as much as possible into linguistic message we rather tend to encode little as necessary for the people who sees the text or sign to figure out the exact message even though it is not in the language. The sign post starts with the word â€Å"Private† and went on to say â€Å"customer parking only and all others will be toad† in that the sign post could be said not to be informative enough for people that might intend parking their cars there will not do so. Although, the sign post may have want to explain the post in this form† Private Customer Car Parking Only, All Other Cars Will Be Towed† in that there seems to be a gap between the decontextualized meaning of the sign post and the ideas expressed by the words. Yule (1996:22) Going by that, it is only by inference (reasoning) that people that are non customer could infer into what the sign post actually mean and act accordingly to avoid sanctions. Finally the â€Å"TOAD† illustrate the point of human communication that the other creature cannot do; for instance towing and toad despite the misspell one is able to code the actual meaning by inferring into the sign post (language) and that is why Hacket(2000) believes strongly on ability of human communication that really distinguishes him from other primate DIRECT COMMUNICATION From the post it is assume that the word â€Å"private customer parking only† could be said to send a straight message to non customers and at such non customers should referring from parking their cars there. The direct communication in the post is actually what the other party really looks at and forgetting the other offensive part that somehow is communicated indirectly. The extraction of the first part meaning is enough for none customers to obey. INDIRECT COMMUNICATION Indirect communication is said to occur when the speaker deviates from the actual meaning or spelling of a particular word or expression. For instance, the post makes some illustrations that clearly show the intention of the communicator that he is trying to conceal things and that could be seen in the spelling of the word Toad instead of Towed and there by miss leading the reader. Although, some may argue that the whole text or sign post is communicated indirectly starting from the very beginning with the word â€Å"Private† to the end which is Toad because the word Customer Parking only do not really communicate directly whether customers are allowed to park their cars there in that it could still mean that the only thing allowed to do there is for customers to park their self in one place without doing anything else. Therefore, it is the use of inference that the true meaning of what the sign post is trying to communicate could really be attained and achieved. THEORIES AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EXAMPLES Different theories are used in explaining the communication process and some of them include the following The accommodation theory The relevance theory The cooperative theory (Grice maxims) ACCOMMODATION THEORY The accommodation theory is essentially a way in which individuals communicates in social groups with language terms or codes peculiar to them and this sometimes could be as a result of cultural variation and sometimes in other for you to communicate effectively you need to be approved of by that group RELEVANCE THEORY The relevant theory stipulates that there are some information that are worth having while some are not and it is our cognition that is directed toward the processing of the information For instance, the work PRIVATE CUSTOMER PARKING ONLY could mean different things to different people but being that the situation at which the information is posted people tend to get the right meaning and ignoring the other aspect that could not mean anything to them Communication can be defined as the verbal exchange of thoughts and ideas. In that respect, the communication we will be analyzing falls into that category because thoughts and idea were in exchange either explicitly or not. One of the major characteristics of communication is the use of inference(reasoning) and encoding and decoding to decipher what the speaker or writer intentions are or what he intended to say or what he is saying. Sometimes communication takes the form of monopoly in the sense that the communicator might not want the information to be explicit to the reader or receiver thereby making it looks one sided. But there are different reasons why communication can be monopolize for instance the intention of the communicator might be different with what the receiver already know or want and this could be seen in the sign post illustration above which states â€Å"all others will be toad† Going by that, inferential reasoning in communication can be explained using the Grice maxim of communication which is the cooperative principle (1975) to illustrate how communication is perceived THE MAXIM OF QUALITY The maxim of quality is always regarded as one of the fundamental of communications principles, according to Grice because it is also believed that when we communicate we expect each other to say things that we believed to be true and relevant to the discussion (Grice 1989:27) Therefore, the illustration below clearly shows that the communicative style deviate from what could be seen as a cooperative act due to the fact that the post want the reader to infer and deduce into its meaning in other to know exactly what it meant by Toad Customer parking only All others will be toad The maxim of quality says that, in communication the intention of the communicator should be plain and genuine and there should be no form of ambiguity so as to confuse the other party. Therefore the excerpt above in the statement Remember that the maxim of quality says Do not say that for which you believe to be false( truthfulness) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence In that maxim of quality is with the speaker over contribution as to what he wants to explain either directly or indirectly which to some extent is regarded as the truthfulness in the act of communication (Grice 1967 p27) The maxim of quality explains things in their real sense and did not try to conceal information so as to deceive the listener. Although communication involve the use of some forms of inference (reasoning) to encode and decode meaning out of conversation, but the maxim of quality is very explicitly when it comes to communication.(Grice 1989 p 371) even thou it was the speaker alone that is mostly concerned. THE MAXIM OF QUANTITY The maxim of quantity as the name is all about giving information with extra ways of adding to the information. For instance, PRIVATE CUSTOMER PARKING ONLY, that piece of information is enough to make the reader understand and get meaning out of the message but rather it went further to add ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD. THE MAXIM OF MANNER This is a situation where the speaker makes precise and concise decision without the listener. According to the post above, there seems to be a contradiction deviating from the maxim of manner by adding other talks that are not relevant to the discussion or topic in question. THE MAXIM OF RELATION This maxim stipulates that a partner contribution to the process of communication should be appropriate to the information received. The post begins its statement with the word Private and it clearly shows that it is not open to any other form of relationship except to its customers only Therefore, â€Å"ALL OTHER WILL BE TOAD† contradicts the earlier information of customer parking only with a misspell of the word Towering to Toad. Also the word Toad could be argued according to Grice not to be relevant to the post of customers parking only. RELEVANCE THEORY AND THE CONCEPT OF TRUTH The Grice maxim of truthfulness was part of what might be called an inferential model of human communication, although, relevance is used in technical sense which is not meant to capture any of the ordinary sense of word. Relevance is the property of input to truth in other words; information’s are more relevant when they lead to truth. Although from the relevance perspective it those not really matter if the speaker speaks the truth or not because what is of most concern to relevance is the cognition process. The relevance is more concern about the integration to general knowledge of cognition effect rather than what is actually said or written in the post like the one above with the misspell of Towed as Toad. Dejura is a key element in relevance Looking closely to how we communicate it shows that most often we communicate things that are not true, for instance the sign post trying to communicate the word All Others Will Be Towed is not true because if a police car is parked in that area certainly nothing will be done to that car. But in Grice’s term this is a violation of the maxim of quality but to the relevance theory it is not a violation because people don’t tend to communicate things that are true but rather communicate things that are relevant. According to the definition of relevance it is only those positive improvement to the believe system are worth having. Therefore, in this regard the relevance theory seems to be superior over the Grice’s theory ILLUSTRATION An utterance has two immediate effects and this indicate that the speaker has something to communicate and it determine an order of accessibility in which the interpretability will occur to the hearer. There is always that assumption that we are entitled to presume that the communicator is aiming to make their contribution one that is real and true and one for which he or she has an adequate evidence about PRIVATE 1 CUSTOMER PARKING ONLY 2 ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD A standard semantic analysis of the second part of the sign post indicates the following that the parking space provided is for customer only and all others will be charged accordingly. It is obvious that the sign post means something more than what it explains and in that it is expected that the reader uses some inference (reasoning) to decipher the exact meaning of the speaker. Therefore, the sign post with the inscription PRIVATE CUSTOMER PARKING ONLY is immediately flowered by the supporting sign that â€Å"ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD† in other words it is very explicit that what the sign post require is for only customers to parking at their own risk and may probable be charged for parking. Walliam and Spencer (1798). This is simply where inferential thinking takes place and could not be argued that this follows the laws of relevance because the law of relevance stipulates that the amount of information recovered should be equal to the one expected or given out. Again, it entails decoding and encoding which is also an important aspect of inference CONCLUSION Therefore, this piece of work achieved in the demonstration of analyzing and describes the intent of communication process from the point of view of relevance theory, cooperative theory and pragmatic and linguistic features of communication. In other word the theories explains how human uses cognition and how human infer into the meaning of various communication process. Therefore, the theories explain the whole sign post beginning with the speaking Grid, linguistic and pragmatic feature of language communication, brief explanation of the accommodation theory, the cooperative principles of communication with explanations on the Grice maxims, direct and indirect communication and the relevance theory REFERENCES Blackemore, D. (1987) sematic contrains on relevance. Blackwell, oxford Blackemore, D. (1992) understanding utterances. Blackwell, oxford Davis, S (ed.)(1991) pragmantics: a reader. Oup, oxford Clark, B. (1993). Relevance and â€Å"pseudo-imperatives†. Linguistics and philosophy, 16(1), 79-121. Clark, B. (1993). Relevance and â€Å"pseudo-imperatives†. Linguistics and philosophy, 16(1), 79-121. Grice, H. P. (1981). Presupposition and conversational implicature. Radical pragmatics, 183-198 Grice, H. P. (2013). 4. logic and conversation. The Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary in Philosophy, 47. Hymes, D.H. (1974). Ways of speaking. In R. Bauman J. Sherzer (Eds.),Explorations in the ethnography of speaking(pp. 433-452). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hymes, D.H. (Ed.). (1974).  Studies in the history of linguistics: Traditions and paradigms. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Lewis, D. (1979). Scorekeeping in a language game. Journal of philosophical logic, 8(1), 339-359 Lewis, D. (1973). Causation. The journal of philosophy, 556-567. Sperber, D and Wilson, D (1986). Relevance: communication and cognition. Oxford: Blackwell and Cambridge: Harvard University press. Ã…Â ½egarac, V., Clark, B. (1999). Phatic interpretations and phatic communication. Journal of Linguistics, 35(02), 321-346.

Donnes Convincing Techniques In His Argumentative Poems English Language Essay

Donnes Convincing Techniques In His Argumentative Poems English Language Essay After John Donnes poetry became prominent again in the 20th century, many critics have tried to identify the source of Donnes persuasiveness throughout his poems. Some related this to his masculine expression. Some others related it to the manly culture of the speakers. Others still believed in the idea that Donne has reached to this level of persuasiveness through manipulation of language. But it seems that Donnes convincing power cannot be attributed to these techniques alone. This paper will briefly introduce three major techniques which can be considered as the source of his persuasiveness. If we want to categorize Donnes poetry into some groups, two groups surely will constitute his argumentative and seductive poems. In the first one, the speaker tries to persuade someone to take a specific action or to adopt a certain point of view or at least has an appreciation for the speakers argumentative skill. The speakers in the argumentative poems have different aims: one tries to stop people from criticizing his love, while another tries to get the sun to stop shining into his room. The convincing power of an argumentative poem is determined by whether or not the reader side with the speaker at the end of the poem rather than the speakers opponent. The listeners can be referred to as witnesses than a participant in this debate and in this position they can evaluate the persuasiveness of the poem by determining the effect of the poem on them. In the other group which is seductive poems, the speaker shares a common purpose in making his arguments: to get a woman to sleep with him. The approach that Donne is using here to persuade his loves is to construct logical arguments. So the seductive poems can also be considered as pieces of persuasion because the speakers success is based on the strength of the argument. Analyzing Donnes argumentative and seductive poems makes it clear that there are some repeated techniques at work in these poems. These techniques help the speakers create powerful arguments that persuade the readers. One technique that is found in almost all of Donnes persuasive poems is that his speakers systematically prove each claim. This is clearly achieved by his great ability in using wit and reason even in his most sensuous poems that is called the association sensibility. Even his most passionate poems work by reason and logic. This logic can be seen when Donnes speakers give examples and evidence to support their claims. The other persuasive technique found in many of Donnes poems is using vivid metaphors and similes to ground the arguments in a pleasing and convincing way. Donnes speakers use these poetic devices not for decoration but to help explain abstract concepts of love. This practical use of literary devices can be seen clearly in the fact that many of Donnes metaphors come from ordinary objects that are familiar. Many of Donnes images come from business or are objects that can be found in urban settings. This familiarity makes the metaphors easy to understand, which is useful in persuading a reader. And the last repeated technique used in most of Donnes argumentative and seductive poems is that his speakers use a bold and direct manner of expression. In this delivery technique, Donne includes lines that contain especially loaded words delivered in a straightforward manner which in turn gives it a tremendous force. This force helps persuade the readers by adding emotional power to the logic of the argument. This paper attempts to show the application of aforementioned techniques, through a detailed analysis, in three of Donnes most famous persuasive poems: The Apparition, Sun Rising, and The Flea. The Apparition In The Apparition, Donnes speaker employs very unconventional methods to seduce a woman. Instead of using flattery or romantic lines, the speaker uses frightening words in order to get the woman to be with him. This method is so unconventional that many readers do not read The Apparition as a seductive poem. While the majority of readers do not consider The Apparition to be a seductive poem, there is textual evidence to the contrary. Early in the poem, the speaker alludes to past attempts to seduce the woman when he says, And that thou thinkst thee free/From all solicitation from mee (1-2). The word solicitation indicates that the speaker has been romantically interested in the woman. This interest introduces the idea that the speakers ultimate goal may be to seduce the woman. The idea that the speakers aim is seduction is confirmed at the poems conclusion when the speaker says, I had rather thou shouldst painfully repent,/Than by my threatnings rest still innocent (16-17). The crime the woman needs to repent for is revealed earlier in the poem when the speaker says the woman is killing him by refusing his advances. The woman can be innocent if she accepts the speakers solicitations and thus ceases to kill him. This conclusion shows that the speakers aim all along has been for the woman to sleep with him. This intent characterizes The Apparition as a seductive poem. The technique the speaker uses to seduce the woman is to frighten her into being with him. The speaker hopes that if he scares the woman enough, she will choose to be with him to avoid facing the grim future that awaits her if she rejects him. While this approach is unconventional, the speaker has tried seducing the woman through conventional approaches that have failed. Frightening the woman is a way for the speaker to try a new technique since his old techniques are not working. The first fear technique employed by the speaker is a strong line at the beginning of the poem. The speaker opens by saying, When by thy scorne, O murdresse, I am dead (1). This line is strongly worded in that it uses words loaded with negative connotations like murdresse and dead. By accusing the woman of murder at the beginning, the speaker is establishing an aggressive tone that carries an emotional force throughout the rest of the poem. This emotional force puts the woman in a vulnerable position, and sets her up to be persuaded. The predominant fear strategy employed by the speaker is to threaten the woman. The threat takes the form of a ghost that will haunt her as the speaker reveals when saying, Then shall my ghost come to thy bed (4). This threat is consistent with the claim that the woman is killing the speaker since ghosts are thought to avenge undeserved deaths. Being haunted by a ghost is a frightening prospect that the woman would want to avoid. If the ghosts presence is not intimidating enough, the speaker claims that the ghost will issue a frightening proclamation. The speaker says, What I will say, I will not tell thee now,/Lest that preserve thee' (14-15). The I the speaker refers to is his ghost. There are many painful utterances the ghost can make, such as cursing the woman or damning her, but the speaker does not reveal what will be said. Not revealing what the ghost will say is another way in which the speaker further frightens the woman. The final way in which the speaker frightens the woman into being with him is by negatively depicting the alternative. The speaker gives a grim portrait of the man she will be with if she does not accept him when he says: And he, whose thou art then, being tyrd before, Will, if you stirre, or pinch to wake him, thinke Thou callst for more, And in false sleepe will from thee shrinke, And then poore Aspen wretch, neglected thou Bathd in a cold quicksilver sweat wilt lye (7-12). The womans future lover is presented as pathetic. He does not have much ability in bed since he pretends to be sleeping to avoid having sex. He also is not protective since he does not come to the womans aid when she is confronted by the ghost. With this description, the speaker tries to convince the woman into thinking that she would be better off had she accepted him. This is a type of threat since the speake r presents a scene of future misery if she does not accept him. By threatening, the speaker tries to get the woman to be with him out of fear of the alternatives. Through using strongly worded lines, threatening the woman, and negatively depicting the competition, Donnes speaker makes the unusual attempt at seducing the woman through fear. It is safe to say that the speaker is very effective in frightening the woman, but it is unknown whether this approach will cause the lady to accept him. This approach certainly has the advantage of novelty, and since standard seduction techniques were not working on the woman, maybe a novel approach will. The Sun Rising The Sunne Rising is one of Donnes most popular poems. It is unique among Donnes argumentative poems in that the speaker addresses an inanimate object, the Sun. In the poem, the speaker is lying in bed with his lover and is upset that sunlight is shining through the window. The speaker makes an argument to try to get the Sun to leave so he and his lover can stay in bed. The poem is not truly argumentative, however, because in the middle of the poem the speaker turns from arguing with the Sun to praising the woman he is with. Until the focus shifts, the persuasive technique found in the poem is a personal attack through insulting the Sun, challenging its power, and giving it commands. These techniques give force to the speakers delivery and lower the audiences impression of the Sun. The persuasive force of the poem comes from the angry tone the speaker uses when talking to the Sun. From the start of the poem, the speaker establishes his angry tone by insulting the Sun. Busie old foole, unruly Sunne, Why dost thou thus, Through windowes, and through curtaines call on us? Must to thy motions lovers seasons run (1-4). In a formal argument, it would be unmannerly to insult an opponent. By insulting the Sun, the speaker shows that he is so overcome with anger that he is unable to restrain himself. This emotion carries over through the rest of the poem and gives the speakers words additional force. Additionally, insults diminish the power and the importance of the Sun by generating the idea that the Sunne does not need to be respected. In arguments, if one person, or the Sun, is well respected, they have credibility with the audience. By insulting the Sun, the speaker eliminates this advantage. The speaker further diminishes the importance of the Sun by questioning the power it possesses. At one point, the speaker challenges the Suns brightness by saying: Thy beames, so reverend, and strong Why shouldst thou thinke? I could eclipse and cloud them with a winke, But that I would not lose her sight so long (11-14). The speaker is not impressed by the Suns brightness since he can close his eyes if he chooses. This attack severely challenges the Suns power since brightness is the most important attribute of the Sun. If the Suns brightness is not respected, then there is no reason to respect the Sun. Another way the speaker diminishes the importance of the Sunne is by giving it orders. The speaker suggests that the Sun take alternative actions: Sawcy pedantique wretch, goe chide Late schoole boyes and sowre prentices, Goe tell Court-huntsmen, that the King will ride, Call countrey ants to harvest offices (5-8). These suggestions take the form of direct commands. By giving orders to the Sun, the speaker asserts that he has the power. The unconcerned content of the orders reinforces the speakers power by portraying the Sun as merely a nuisance the speaker wants to be rid of. By diminishing the Sun and establishing that he is the one with power, the speaker gains credibility with the audience. While argumentative elements and persuasive techniques are present in the first part of the poem, they are absent later on. Instead of arguing with the Sun, the speaker turns his attention to praising the woman that he is with. Romantic lines abound as when the speaker says Sheis all States, and all Princes, I,/Nothing else is (21-22). The speaker is consumed by the woman. This change of purpose is characterized when the speaker tells the Sun to stay in the room and just to shine on them: Thine age askes ease, and since thy duties bee To warme the world, thats done in warming us. Shine here to us, and thou art every where; this bed thy center is, these walls, thy spheare (27-30). Telling the Sun to stay in the room is the complete opposite of what the speaker wanted in the first half of the poem. The speaker becomes so focused on his love that he forgets his initial argument. While parts of the poem are extremely argumentative, The Sun Rising is not a complete argumentative poem since the argument does not carry through till the end. While the poem may not truly be argumentative, it certainly is persuasive. By personally attacking the Sun through insults, challenging its power, and giving orders, the speaker crafts a forceful delivery and causes the audience to transfer any importance and reverence for the Sun to himself. The speaker possesses influence with readers, which causes them to side with him. Noticeably, the speaker does not rely on logic to make his argument. The Sun Rising shows how a speaker can craft a persuasive argument solely with a forceful delivery and personal attacks. The Flea The persuasive techniques Donne includes in his persuasion poems culminate in The Flea. In addition to being Donnes most popular poem, The Flea is the ultimate seductive poem. No matter how little success he has, Donnes speaker refuses to give up and keeps trying to win over the woman. Many persuasive techniques are found in The Flea, including the use of a common metaphor, vigorously presenting the argument of the speaker, and adapting the arguments logic to fit the situation. By basing the argument on a flea, Donnes speaker uses the persuasive technique of employing a common metaphor. The speaker establishes the metaphor at the beginning of the poem by saying, Marke but this flea, and marke in this,/How little that which thou denyst me is (1-2). By examining the flea, the speaker intends to show the woman that having sex is not a big deal. The flea is significant because it sucks blood. The speaker says, It suckd me first, and now sucks thee,/And in this flea, our two bloods mingled bee (3-4). In Donnes time, sex was thought to involve the mixing of blood, so the flea biting the man and woman is a metaphor for sex. Although this is the reason the flea was chosen as a metaphor, it has other persuasive benefits. A flea is an ordinary object that is familiar. This familiarity makes it a good choice as a metaphor, since it is able to be understood to the connections that Donne draws. The metaphor is also a good choice because the flea is a natural object. Metaphors drawn from natural occurrences are the most credible. They represent an ideal state because they are free from human intervention. People are more willing to apply the lessons of such metaphors to their own lives. For these reasons, using the flea as a metaphor is a good persuasive strategy. A second persuasive technique employed by the speaker is to vigorously present the speakers argument at the expense of the womans. The Flea is a dramatic argument in that both sides argue their point of view. The womans reactions, however, are not revealed in the lines, but rather take place in the stanza breaks. The reader learns about the womans response in the opening lines of the second and third stanzas. In the second stanza, the reader learns that the woman is getting ready to smash the flea when the speaker says, Oh stay, three lives in one flea spare ( 10). In the third stanza, the reader learns that the woman has killed the flea when the speaker says, Cruell and sodaine, hast thou since/Purpled thy naile, in blood of innocence (19- 20). With these lines, the speaker makes the woman seem cruel for taking such harsh actions against the flea. Since these actions represent the womans response, this characterization articulates the womans argument. The only reference to the womans argument comes near the end of the poem when the speaker says, Yet thou triumphst, and saist that thou/Findst not thy selfe, nor mee the weaker now (23-24). The speakers prior coloring makes the act seem like needless aggression rather than a triumph. Her claim similarly lacks the argument. The disparity in presenting the two arguments causes the speaker to have the persuasive advantage over the woman. In The Flea, the speakers most noteworthy technique is adjusting his arguments in response to the situation. The speaker goes through a variety of logical approaches in attempting to win over the woman. Initially, the speaker tries to argue that having sex is not a big deal. He uses a proof by definition to show that the flea sucking blood from the two of them is the equivalent of sex. If sex consists of the mixing of blood, then the flea biting both of them can be thought of as sex. This approach is persuasive since proofs by definitions are logically sound. Once the speaker establishes that the flea bite resembles sex, the speaker minimizes the scale of the act by saying, Thou knowst that this cannot be said/A sinne, nor shame, nor losse of maidenhead (5-6). The flea bite does not carry all of the negative ramifications associated with sex. The speaker implies that since the acts are equal, then sex similarly should not carry with it all of the negative connotations. Those ramifica tions are presumably why the woman does not want to have sex with the speaker. The speaker uses the metaphor of a flea to alleviate the womans fears. Ultimately, this approach does not work; the woman not only denies sex with the speaker, but she also makes a move to smash the flea. When the speakers initial approach fails, he adjusts his argument. The second stanza is not as much about getting the woman to have sex as it is stopping her from killing the flea. The speaker attempts to prevent her from killing the flea by giving much greater importance to the flea bite, such as when he says, where we almost, yea more than married are./This flea is you and I, and this/Our mariage bed, and mariage temple is (11-13). Since parts of themselves share such close quarters in the flea, the speaker equates that to marriage. While in the first stanza downplays the significance of the flea bite, the second stanza builds up the importance of the act. Since the first approach failed, the speaker attempts a different strategy. This argument is not as strong as the first. Comparing the meaning of their blood in the flea to marriage is a stretch, but the situation meets some of the requirements that define marriage. The speaker additionally tries to convince the woman not to kill the flea by raising moral issues. The speaker says, Though use make you apt to kill mee,/Let not to that, selfe murder added bee,/And sacrilege, three sins in killing three (16-18). The three sins the woman would commit if she killed the flea would be murdering the speaker, suicide, and committing disrespect against their marriage temple. Appealing to the womans morality is a good tactic because she is concerned with sin, since that is one of her fears regarding sex. This line of reasoning is another example of the speaker fitting his argument to the situation. The speakers persuasive techniques once again fail as, despite his efforts, the woman kills the flea. This occurs in the break between stanzas two and three. Killing the flea is the womans way of refuting the notion that the flea has the importance that the speaker gives it in stanza two. By killing the flea, the woman also communicates that the speakers plan to use the metaphor of the flea to persuade her into having sex will not work. The speaker responds to the woman by once again changing his argument. First, he calls the woman cruel for killing the flea. Claiming that the violence is unnecessary, he says, Wherein could this flea guilty bee,/Except in that drop which it suckt from thee?. (21-22). The speaker tries to get the woman to recognize that she was wrong in her actions and, by extension, in her argument. The speaker then tries to minimize the significance of her killing the flea and uses it to convince her to have sex with him. The speaker says, Tis true, then learne how false, feares bee;/Just so much honor, when thou yeeldst to mee,/Will wast, as this fleas death tooke life from thee (25-27). The speaker reverses the argument he made in stanza two to once again show the importance of the flea. He argues that as much honor will be lost in having sex as life was lost by being bitten by the flea. This is the weakest argument in the poem, since the connection between blood loss and honor does not make much sense. With this argument, the speaker is making one last attempt at seducing the woman. The speaker adapts his argument a great deal in The Flea. When his initial plan of minimizing the flea to subsequently showing the magnitude of sex fails, he completely reverses his approach to elevating the importance of the flea. His attention also shifts from trying to get the woman to sleep with him to trying to stop her from killing the flea. When the woman kills the flea, the speaker shifts his argument again. He shows the significance of the flea to minimize the womans response. He also returns his focus to trying to get the woman to sleep with him. Ultimately the speakers seduction efforts probably fail. His logic gets progressively weaker as the poem progresses. Since the woman rejects his initial arguments, it is unlikely that she will be swayed by the inferior arguments he makes later. Although the speaker fails to seduce the woman, his effort is admirable. His techniques of basing his argume nt on a common, natural object and vigorously presenting his own arguments give him a persuasive advantage. He then shows great skill and persistence in molding his arguments throughout the poem. The speakers failure cannot be blamed on his approach or his amount of effort. Conclusion In examining these poems, it is clear that more than any other factor, the persuasive techniques that Donnes speakers employ make the arguments in his poems convincing. Donne uses a variety of techniques to help his speakers either win an argument or seduce a woman. The techniques found most often in Donnes persuasive poems are 1) systematically proving each claim, 2) employing vivid metaphors and similes to ground the arguments in a pleasing and convincing fashion, and 3) using a bold and direct manner of expression. There are also numerous techniques specific to individual poems that aid in convincing an audience. These persuasive techniques are not exclusive to Donnes poems, and can be found in many pieces of writing in which the speaker attempts to persuade his audience. Studying a master of rhetoric like Donne provides persuasive skills that can be used in everyday life.

Case Analysis: Land Rover North America Essay -- Business Case Study

1) Background Analysis: General Market Assessment: In the 90's, the SUV was looking to become a highly contentious market, however, with a new emphasis on the Leisure SUV. This was where LRNA will be able to maximize its market share, and perhaps grab a foothold on the market. Competition and behavior: The SUV industry in North America was becoming increasingly competitive, with "over 30 SUV models, their prices ranging from $10,000 to $60,000. Market leaders were Jeep and Ford, with Jeep having a strong heritage in the USA much in the same was as Land Rover did in the United Kingdom. Jeep itself had three lines; much in the way Land Rover was trying to carry various lines for different segments of the market. The international impact on the North American SUV sales was modest, and the luxury segment of the SUV class was about to become more competitive with new products from the likes of Mercedes and Lexus. Company Analysis: Land Rover started off in the UK and was able to market itself on its heritage. When it made the jump to North America, it had banked on this British heritage. Land Rover North America (LRNA) had initially started off in respectable terms as a somewhat boutique firm, with a staff of 15 and 60 dealers. Recently they have taken a decision to move from a niche player with unit sales of 5,000 to a bigger player in the US SUV market. One of the key areas that they are focusing on is the introduction of the Land Rover Discovery. Current: Currently, LRNA has switched from a corporate identity based solely on the Range Rover, to the overall umbrella brand of Land Rover, which it self has multiple sub brands (or vehicles) one of which is the Discovery. With the decision of branding and introducing the Discovery... ...(TV and Print Mix) Corporate Identity 4.5 million Discovery Identity 4.5 million Land Rover Defender 3 Million Range Rover 3 Million 15 Million Corp. Sponsorships Tread Lightly 25,000 Camel Trophy 240,000 General Fees 115,000 Mt Washington 20,000 400,00 Experienced Marketing Programs Website 150,000 Dealer Driving Experience 20,000* 300,000 * Promotions Treasure Hunt 5000 - 60000 60,000 Exhibit 3: Timeline Jan ‘ 94 Second Quarter Fourth Quarter Corporate Rebranding Ad and TV Marketing Tie in entire product line with Around Discovery Marketing Campaign showing the Land Rover Family ________________________________________ Feb ‘ 94 Introduction Third Quarter Of Discovery Introduction of Land Rover Centers and New Product Announcements